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The Revolution, by which the thirteen American colonies separated themselves from Great Britain, had several causes. Increase of population in America would naturally cause a desire for independence, especially after the French had been driven out (1763). Just at this time the government of George III., under Grenville, resolved to enforce more strictly the Navigation Act and other laws restricting American trade in the interest of England, to station garrisons in America, and to pay a part of the expense by a stamp-tax. The Stamp Act aroused violent opposition, expressed through the Stamp-Act Congress of 1765. Taxation by Parliament without representation in Parliament was declared illegal and tyrannous. The British Government persisted in the principle, taxing various imports from 1767 to 1770, and tea thereafter. Boston Tea party led Parliament to pass acts retaliating upon Boston and altering the charter of Massachusetts. The colonies, already brought into concert through their Committees of Correspondence, convened in Continental Congress at Philadelphia in September, 1774. They published a declaration of rights, protested to king and Parliament, and engaged in an association, or non-importation agreement. In April, 1775, Gage, the British commander at Boston, encountered resistance at Lexington and Concord, and war began. A local army, though defeated at Bunker Hill, besieged Boston. A second Continental Congress organized a regular or Continental army, appointed Washington commander-in-chief, and pursued the war. Boston was captured, and the British troops under Howe retired to New York. Acting from this centre, they gained considerable successes over Washington. Meanwhile Congress issued its Declaration of Independence (July 4, 1776), and provisionally governed the new republic, the United States of America. Under its advice, the colonies, now called States, made for themselves constitutions and organized new governments in place of the defunct royal governments. It also framed a new and more regular scheme of Federal government, called the Articles of Confederation; but unanimous consent to its adoption was not obtained until 1781. Congress had great difficulty in getting men and money. Many were disaffected or indifferent to the cause of revolution. The Continental paper money depreciated rapidly, and loans were hard to raise. In 1776 the war for the most part went against them. In 1777 Howe occupied Philadelphia, their capital, defeating the Americans at Brandywine and Germantown. But this prevented him from co-operating with Burgoyne, who was marching down from Canada to New York in the effort to cut off New England from the rest of the Union. In October Burgoyne surrendered at Saratoga. This success enabled the Americans to conclude, in February, 1778, a treaty of alliance with France, which brought them French aid in men and money. During the remainder of the war the efforts of the British commander, Clinton, were mainly directed against the southern end of the American line. Savannah was taken in 1778, Charleston in 1780, and Gates was badly defeated at Camden. The war in the South was managed with much severity, but successfully for the Americans after the appointment of Greene. Cornwallis, marching northward through the Carolinas, took up a position in Virginia, at Yorktown, where, in October, 1781, he was compelled to surrender to a French-American army which Washington had brought down from the North, the French fleet assisting. This virtually ended the war. England was obliged to consent to American independence. Preliminaries having been arranged in 1782, peace was made on these terms at Paris in 1783, the United States being conceded a territory extending from Canada to Florida and westward to the Mississippi. Histories by Bancroft and Fiske.